Process of Writing
1. Prewriting
Have you ever sat staring at a blank piece of paper or a blank document on your computer screen? You might have skipped the vital first stage of the writing process: prewriting. This covers everything you do before starting your rough draft. As a minimum, prewriting means coming up with an idea!
Ideas and Inspiration
Ideas are all around you. If you want to write but you don’t have any ideas, try:
• Using a writing prompt to get you started.
• Writing about incidents from your daily life, or childhood.
• Keeping a notebook of ideas – jotting down those thoughts that occur throughout the day.
• Creating a vivid character, and then writing about him/her.
See also How to Generate Hundreds of Writing Ideas.
Building on Your Idea
These are a couple of popular methods you can use to add flesh to the bones of your idea:
• Free writing: Open a new document or start a new page, and write everything that comes into your head about your chosen topic. Don’t stop to edit, even if you make mistakes.
• Brainstorming: Write the idea or topic in the center of your page. Jot down ideas that arise from it – sub-topics or directions you could take with the article.
Once you’ve done one or both of these, you need to select what’s going into your first draft.
Planning and Structure
Some pieces of writing will require more planning than others. Typically, longer pieces and academic papers need a lot of thought at this stage.
First, decide which ideas you’ll use. During your free writing and brainstorming, you’ll have come up with lots of thoughts. Some belong in this piece of writing: others can be kept for another time.
Then, decide how to order those ideas. Try to have a logical progression. Sometimes, your topic will make this easy: in this article, for instance, it made sense to take each step of the writing process in order. For a short story, try the eight-point story arc.
2. Writing
Sit down with your plan beside you, and start your first draft (also known as the rough draft or rough copy). At this stage, don’t think about word-count, grammar, spelling and punctuation. Don’t worry if you’ve gone off-topic, or if some sections of your plan don’t fit too well. Just keep writing!
If you’re a new writer, you might be surprised that professional authors go through multiple drafts before they’re happy with their work. This is a normal part of the writing process – no-one gets it right first time.
Some things that many writers find helpful when working on the first draft include:
• Setting aside at least thirty minutes to concentrate: it’s hard to establish a writing flow if you’re just snatching a few minutes here and there.
• Going somewhere without interruptions: a library or coffee shop can work well, if you don’t have anywhere quiet to write at home.
• Switching off distracting programs: if you write your first draft onto a computer, you might find that turning off your Internet connection does wonders for your concentration levels! When I’m writing fiction, I like to use the free program Dark Room (you can find more about it on our collection of writing software).
You might write several drafts, especially if you’re working on fiction. Your subsequent drafts will probably merge elements of the writing stage and the revising stage.
3. Revising
Revising your work is about making “big picture” changes. You might remove whole sections, rewrite entire paragraphs, and add in information which you’ve realized the reader will need. Everyone needs to revise – even talented writers.
The revision stage is sometimes summed up with the A.R.R.R. (Adding, Rearranging, Removing, Replacing) approach:
Adding
What else does the reader need to know? If you haven’t met the required word-count, what areas could you expand on? This is a good point to go back to your prewriting notes – look for ideas which you didn’t use.
Rearranging
Even when you’ve planned your piece, sections may need rearranging. Perhaps as you wrote your essay, you found that the argument would flow better if you reordered your paragraphs. Maybe you’ve written a short story that drags in the middle but packs in too much at the end.
Removing
Sometimes, one of your ideas doesn’t work out. Perhaps you’ve gone over the word count, and you need to take out a few paragraphs. Maybe that funny story doesn’t really fit with the rest of your article.
Replacing
Would more vivid details help bring your piece to life? Do you need to look for stronger examples and quotations to support your argument? If a particular paragraph isn’t working, try rewriting it.
Tip: If you’re not sure what’s working and what isn’t, show your writing to someone else. This might be a writers’ circle, or just a friend who’s good with words. Ask them for feedback. It’s best if you can show your work to several people, so that you can get more than one opinion.
EDITING
The editing stage is distinct from revision, and needs to be done after revising. Editing involves the close-up view of individual sentences and words. It needs to be done after you’ve made revisions on a big scale: or else you could agonize over a perfect sentence, only to end up cutting that whole paragraph from your piece.
When editing, go through your piece line by line, and make sure that each sentence, phrase and word is as strong as possible. Some things to check for are:
• Have you used the same word too many times in one sentence or paragraph? Use a thesaurus to find alternatives.
• Are any of your sentences hard to understand? Rewrite them to make your thoughts clear.
• Which words could you cut to make a sentence stronger? Words like “just” “quite”, “very”, “really” and “generally” can often be removed.
• Are your sentences grammatically correct? Keep a careful look out for problems like subject-verb agreement and staying consistent in your use of the past, present or future tense.
• Is everything spelt correctly? Don’t trust your spell-checker – it won’t pick up every mistake. Proofread as many times as necessary.
• Have you used punctuation marks correctly? Commas often cause difficulties. You might want to check out the Daily Writing Tips articles on punctuation.
Tip: Print out your work and edit on paper. Many writers find it easier to spot mistakes this way.
5. Publishing
The final step of the writing process is publishing. This means different things depending on the piece you’re working on.
Bloggers need to upload, format and post their piece of completed work.
Students need to produce a final copy of their work, in the correct format. This often means adding a bibliography, ensuring that citations are correct, and adding details such as your student reference number.
Journalists need to submit their piece (usually called “copy”) to an editor. Again, there will be a certain format for this.
Fiction writers may be sending their story to a magazine or competition. Check guidelines carefully, and make sure you follow them. If you’ve written a novel, look for an agent who represents your genre. (There are books like Writer’s Market, published each year, which can help you with this.)
Tip: Your piece of writing might never be published. That’s okay – many bestselling authors wrote lots of stories or articles before they got their first piece published. Nothing that you write is wasted, because it all contributes to your growth as a writer.
Conclusion
The five stages of the writing process are a framework for writing well and easily. You might want to bookmark this post so that you can come back to it each time you start on a new article, blog post, essay or story: use it as a checklist to help you.
Tuesday, July 6, 2010
The Structure of a Sentence
The Structure of a Sentence
Remember that every clause is, in a sense, a miniature sentence. A simple sentences contains only a single clause, while a compound sentence, a complex sentence, or a compound-complex sentence contains at least two clauses.
1. The Simple Sentence
The most basic type of sentence is the simple sentence, which contains only one clause. A simple sentence can be as short as one word:
Run!
Usually, however, the sentence has a subject as well as a predicate and both the subject and the predicate may have modifiers. All of the following are simple sentences, because each contains only one clause:
Melt!
Ice melts.
The ice melts quickly.
The ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
Lying exposed without its blanket of snow, the ice on the river melts quickly under the warm March sun.
As you can see, a simple sentence can be quite long -- it is a mistake to think that you can tell a simple sentence from a compound sentence or a complex sentence simply by its length.
The most natural sentence structure is the simple sentence: it is the first kind which children learn to speak, and it remains by far the most common sentence in the spoken language of people of all ages. In written work, simple sentences can be very effective for grabbing a reader's attention or for summing up an argument, but you have to use them with care: too many simple sentences can make your writing seem childish.
When you do use simple sentences, you should add transitional phrases to connect them to the surrounding sentences.
2. The Compound Sentence
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple sentences) joined by co-ordinating conjunctions like "and," "but," and "or":
Simple
Simple
Still, it has many poor people.
Compound
Compound sentences are very natural for English speakers -- small children learn to use them early on to connect their ideas and to avoid pausing (and allowing an adult to interrupt):
Today at school Mr. Moore brought in his pet rabbit, and he showed it to the class, and I got to pet it, and Kate held it, and we coloured pictures of it, and it ate part of my carrot at lunch, and ...
Of course, this is an extreme example, but if you over-use compound sentences in written work, your writing might seem immature.
A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of balance or contrast between two (or more) equally-important pieces of information:
Montéal has better clubs, but
Special Cases of Compound Sentences
There are two special types of compound sentences which you might want to note. First, rather than joining two simple sentences together, a co-ordinating conjunction sometimes joins two complex sentences, or one simple sentence and one complex sentence. In this case, the sentence is called a compound-complex sentence:
compound-complex
The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before I could check the contents.
The second special case involves punctuation. It is possible to join two originally separate sentences into a compound sentence using a semicolon instead of a co-ordinating conjunction:
Sir John A. Macdonald had a serious drinking problem; when sober, however, he could be a formidable foe in the House of Commons.
Usually, a conjunctive adverb like "however" or "consequently" will appear near the beginning of the second part, but it is not required:
The sun rises in the east; it sets in the west.
3. The Complex Sentence
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Unlike a compound sentence, however, a complex sentence contains clauses which are not equal. Consider the following examples:
Simple
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
Compound
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
Complex
Although my friend invited me to a party, I do not want to go.
In the first example, there are two separate simple sentences: "My friend invited me to a party" and "I do not want to go." The second example joins them together into a single sentence with the co-ordinating conjunction "but," but both parts could still stand as independent sentences -- they are entirely equal, and the reader cannot tell which is most important. In the third example, however, the sentence has changed quite a bit: the first clause, "Although my friend invited me to a party," has become incomplete, or a dependent clause.
A complex sentence is very different from a simple sentence or a compound sentence because it makes clear which ideas are most important. When you write
My friend invited me to a party. I do not want to go.
or even
My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.
The reader will have trouble knowing which piece of information is most important to you. When you write the subordinating conjunction "although" at the beginning of the first clause, however, you make it clear that the fact that your friend invited you is less important than, or subordinate, to the fact that you do not want to go.
Paragraphs and Topic Sentences
A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all related to a single topic. Almost every piece of writing you do that is longer than a few sentences should be organized into paragraphs. This is because paragraphs show a reader where the subdivisions of an essay begin and end, and thus help the reader see the organization of the essay and grasp its main points.
Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A paragraph could contain a series of brief examples or a single long illustration of a general point. It might describe a place, character, or process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast two or more things; classify items into categories; or describe causes and effects. Regardless of the kind of information they contain, all paragraphs share certain characteristics. One of the most important of these is a topic sentence.
TOPIC SENTENCES
A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a single controlling idea, which is expressed in a sentence called the topic sentence. A topic sentence has several important functions: it substantiates or supports an essay’s thesis statement; it unifies the content of a paragraph and directs the order of the sentences; and it advises the reader of the subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will discuss it. Readers generally look to the first few sentences in a paragraph to determine the subject and perspective of the paragraph. That’s why it’s often best to put the topic sentence at the very beginning of the paragraph. In some cases, however, it’s more effective to place another sentence before the topic sentence—for example, a sentence linking the current paragraph to the previous one, or one providing background information.
Although most paragraphs should have a topic sentence, there are a few situations when a paragraph might not need a topic sentence. For example, you might be able to omit a topic sentence in a paragraph that narrates a series of events, if a paragraph continues developing an idea that you introduced (with a topic sentence) in the previous paragraph, or if all the sentences and details in a paragraph clearly refer—perhaps indirectly—to a main point. The vast majority of your paragraphs, however, should have a topic sentence.
PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE
Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure—introduction, body, and conclusion. You can see this structure in paragraphs whether they are narrating, describing, comparing, contrasting, or analyzing information. Each part of the paragraph plays an important role in communicating your meaning to your reader.
Introduction : the first section of a paragraph; should include the topic sentence and any other sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that give background information or provide a transition.
Body : follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts, arguments, analysis, examples, and other information.
Conclusion : the final section; summarizes the connections between the information discussed in the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea.
The following paragraph illustrates this pattern of organization. In this paragraph the topic sentence and concluding sentence (CAPITALIZED) both help the reader keep the paragraph’s main point in mind.
SCIENTISTS HAVE LEARNED TO SUPPLEMENT THE SENSE OF SIGHT IN NUMEROUS WAYS. In front of the tiny pupil of the eye they put, on Mount Palomar, a great monocle 200 inches in diameter, and with it see 2000 times farther into the depths of space. Or they look through a small pair of lenses arranged as a microscope into a drop of water or blood, and magnify by as much as 2000 diameters the living creatures there, many of which are among man’s most dangerous enemies. Or, if we want to see distant happenings on earth, they use some of the previously wasted electromagnetic waves to carry television images which they re-create as light by whipping tiny crystals on a screen with electrons in a vacuum. Or they can bring happenings of long ago and far away as colored motion pictures, by arranging silver atoms and color-absorbing molecules to force light waves into the patterns of original reality. Or if we want to see into the center of a steel casting or the chest of an injured child, they send the information on a beam of penetrating short-wave X rays, and then convert it back into images we can see on a screen or photograph. THUS ALMOST EVERY TYPE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION YET DISCOVERED HAS BEEN USED TO EXTEND OUR SENSE OF SIGHT IN SOME WAY.
COHERENCE
In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence or controlling idea, but there is more to coherence than this. If a paragraph is coherent, each sentence flows smoothly into the next without obvious shifts or jumps. A coherent paragraph also highlights the ties between old information and new information to make the structure of ideas or arguments clear to the reader.
Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraph’s coherence may also be related to its length. If you have written a very long paragraph, one that fills a double-spaced typed page, for example, you should check it carefully to see if it should start a new paragraph where the original paragraph wanders from its controlling idea. On the other hand, if a paragraph is very short (only one or two sentences, perhaps), you may need to develop its controlling idea more thoroughly, or combine it with another paragraph.
A number of other techniques that you can use to establish coherence in paragraphs are described below.
Repeat key words or phrases. Particularly in paragraphs in which you define or identify an important idea or theory, be consistent in how you refer to it. This consistency and repetition will bind the paragraph together and help your reader understand your definition or description.
Create parallel structures. Parallel structures are created by constructing two or more phrases or sentences that have the same grammatical structure and use the same parts of speech. By creating parallel structures you make your sentences clearer and easier to read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a series of consecutive sentences helps your reader see the connections between ideas. In the paragraph above about scientists and the sense of sight, several sentences in the body of the paragraph have been constructed in a parallel way. The parallel structures (which have been emphasized) help the reader see that the paragraph is organized as a set of examples of a general statement.
Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number. Consistency in point of view, verb tense, and number is a subtle but important aspect of coherence. If you shift from the more personal "you" to the impersonal “one,” from past to present tense, or from “a man” to “they,” for example, you make your paragraph less coherent. Such inconsistencies can also confuse your reader and make your argument more difficult to follow.
Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between paragraphs. Transitional expressions emphasize the relationships between ideas, so they help readers follow your train of thought or see connections that they might otherwise miss or misunderstand. The following paragraph shows how carefully chosen transitions (CAPITALIZED) lead the reader smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion of the paragraph.
I don’t wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied "stegosaurus" houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective, BUT I do wish to assert that we should not expect more of the beast. FIRST OF ALL, large animals have relatively smaller brains than related, small animals. The correlation of brain size with body size among kindred animals (all reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is remarkably regular. AS we move from small to large animals, from mice to elephants or small lizards to Komodo dragons, brain size increases, BUT not so fast as body size. IN OTHER WORDS, bodies grow faster than brains, AND large animals have low ratios of brain weight to body weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about two-thirds as fast as bodies. SINCE we have no reason to believe that large animals are consistently stupider than their smaller relatives, we must conclude that large animals require relatively less brain to do as well as smaller animals. IF we do not recognize this relationship, we are likely to underestimate the mental power of very large animals, dinosaurs in particular.
Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A paragraph could contain a series of brief examples or a single long illustration of a general point. It might describe a place, character, or process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast two or more things; classify items into categories; or describe causes and effects. Regardless of the kind of information they contain, all paragraphs share certain characteristics. One of the most important of these is a topic sentence.
TOPIC SENTENCES
A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a single controlling idea, which is expressed in a sentence called the topic sentence. A topic sentence has several important functions: it substantiates or supports an essay’s thesis statement; it unifies the content of a paragraph and directs the order of the sentences; and it advises the reader of the subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will discuss it. Readers generally look to the first few sentences in a paragraph to determine the subject and perspective of the paragraph. That’s why it’s often best to put the topic sentence at the very beginning of the paragraph. In some cases, however, it’s more effective to place another sentence before the topic sentence—for example, a sentence linking the current paragraph to the previous one, or one providing background information.
Although most paragraphs should have a topic sentence, there are a few situations when a paragraph might not need a topic sentence. For example, you might be able to omit a topic sentence in a paragraph that narrates a series of events, if a paragraph continues developing an idea that you introduced (with a topic sentence) in the previous paragraph, or if all the sentences and details in a paragraph clearly refer—perhaps indirectly—to a main point. The vast majority of your paragraphs, however, should have a topic sentence.
PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE
Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure—introduction, body, and conclusion. You can see this structure in paragraphs whether they are narrating, describing, comparing, contrasting, or analyzing information. Each part of the paragraph plays an important role in communicating your meaning to your reader.
Introduction : the first section of a paragraph; should include the topic sentence and any other sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that give background information or provide a transition.
Body : follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts, arguments, analysis, examples, and other information.
Conclusion : the final section; summarizes the connections between the information discussed in the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea.
The following paragraph illustrates this pattern of organization. In this paragraph the topic sentence and concluding sentence (CAPITALIZED) both help the reader keep the paragraph’s main point in mind.
SCIENTISTS HAVE LEARNED TO SUPPLEMENT THE SENSE OF SIGHT IN NUMEROUS WAYS. In front of the tiny pupil of the eye they put, on Mount Palomar, a great monocle 200 inches in diameter, and with it see 2000 times farther into the depths of space. Or they look through a small pair of lenses arranged as a microscope into a drop of water or blood, and magnify by as much as 2000 diameters the living creatures there, many of which are among man’s most dangerous enemies. Or, if we want to see distant happenings on earth, they use some of the previously wasted electromagnetic waves to carry television images which they re-create as light by whipping tiny crystals on a screen with electrons in a vacuum. Or they can bring happenings of long ago and far away as colored motion pictures, by arranging silver atoms and color-absorbing molecules to force light waves into the patterns of original reality. Or if we want to see into the center of a steel casting or the chest of an injured child, they send the information on a beam of penetrating short-wave X rays, and then convert it back into images we can see on a screen or photograph. THUS ALMOST EVERY TYPE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION YET DISCOVERED HAS BEEN USED TO EXTEND OUR SENSE OF SIGHT IN SOME WAY.
COHERENCE
In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to the topic sentence or controlling idea, but there is more to coherence than this. If a paragraph is coherent, each sentence flows smoothly into the next without obvious shifts or jumps. A coherent paragraph also highlights the ties between old information and new information to make the structure of ideas or arguments clear to the reader.
Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraph’s coherence may also be related to its length. If you have written a very long paragraph, one that fills a double-spaced typed page, for example, you should check it carefully to see if it should start a new paragraph where the original paragraph wanders from its controlling idea. On the other hand, if a paragraph is very short (only one or two sentences, perhaps), you may need to develop its controlling idea more thoroughly, or combine it with another paragraph.
A number of other techniques that you can use to establish coherence in paragraphs are described below.
Repeat key words or phrases. Particularly in paragraphs in which you define or identify an important idea or theory, be consistent in how you refer to it. This consistency and repetition will bind the paragraph together and help your reader understand your definition or description.
Create parallel structures. Parallel structures are created by constructing two or more phrases or sentences that have the same grammatical structure and use the same parts of speech. By creating parallel structures you make your sentences clearer and easier to read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a series of consecutive sentences helps your reader see the connections between ideas. In the paragraph above about scientists and the sense of sight, several sentences in the body of the paragraph have been constructed in a parallel way. The parallel structures (which have been emphasized) help the reader see that the paragraph is organized as a set of examples of a general statement.
Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number. Consistency in point of view, verb tense, and number is a subtle but important aspect of coherence. If you shift from the more personal "you" to the impersonal “one,” from past to present tense, or from “a man” to “they,” for example, you make your paragraph less coherent. Such inconsistencies can also confuse your reader and make your argument more difficult to follow.
Use transition words or phrases between sentences and between paragraphs. Transitional expressions emphasize the relationships between ideas, so they help readers follow your train of thought or see connections that they might otherwise miss or misunderstand. The following paragraph shows how carefully chosen transitions (CAPITALIZED) lead the reader smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion of the paragraph.
I don’t wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied "stegosaurus" houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective, BUT I do wish to assert that we should not expect more of the beast. FIRST OF ALL, large animals have relatively smaller brains than related, small animals. The correlation of brain size with body size among kindred animals (all reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is remarkably regular. AS we move from small to large animals, from mice to elephants or small lizards to Komodo dragons, brain size increases, BUT not so fast as body size. IN OTHER WORDS, bodies grow faster than brains, AND large animals have low ratios of brain weight to body weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about two-thirds as fast as bodies. SINCE we have no reason to believe that large animals are consistently stupider than their smaller relatives, we must conclude that large animals require relatively less brain to do as well as smaller animals. IF we do not recognize this relationship, we are likely to underestimate the mental power of very large animals, dinosaurs in particular.
PARAGRAPH WRITING
Paragraph Writing
Topic Sentence
What is the topic sentence?
The topic sentence is the first sentence in a paragraph.
What does it do?
It introduces the main idea of the paragraph.
How do I write one?
Summarize the main idea of your paragraph. Indicate to the reader what your paragraph will be about.
Example:
There are three reasons why
What are supporting sentences?
They come after the topic sentence, making up the body of a paragraph.
What do they do?
They give details to develop and support the main idea of the paragraph.
How do I write them?
You should give supporting facts, details, and examples.
Example:
There are three reasons why
What is the closing sentence?
The closing sentence is the last sentence in a paragraph.
What does it do?
It restates the main idea of your paragraph.
How do I write one?
Restate the main idea of the paragraph using different words.
Example:
There are three reasons why
Prewriting Paragraphs
What is the prewriting stage?
The prewriting stage is when you think carefully and organize your ideas for your paragraph before you begin writing.
Six Prewriting Steps:
1. Think carefully about what you are going to write. Ask yourself: What question am I going to answer in this paragraph or essay? How can I best answer this question? What is the most important part of my answer? How can I make an introductory sentence (or thesis statement) from the most important part of my answer? What facts or ideas can I use to support my introductory sentence? How can I make this paragraph or essay interesting? Do I need more facts on this topic? Where can I find more facts on this topic?
2. Open your notebook. Write out your answers to the above questions. You do not need to spend a lot of time doing this; just write enough to help you remember why and how you are going to write your paragraph or essay.
3. Collect facts related to your paragraph or essay topic. Look for and write down facts that will help you to answer your question. Timesaving hint: make sure the facts you are writing are related to the exact question you are going to answer in your paragraph or essay.
4. Write down your own ideas. Ask yourself: What else do I want to say about this topic? Why should people be interested in this topic? Why is this topic important?
5. Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay. Choose the most important point you are going to present. If you cannot decide which point is the most important, just choose one point and stick to it throughout your paragraph or essay.
6. Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops your main idea. Once you have chosen the most important point of your paragraph or essay, you must find the best way to tell your reader about it. Look at the facts you have written. Look at your own ideas on the topic. Decide which facts and ideas will best support the main idea of your paragraph. Once you have chosen the facts and ideas you plan to use, ask yourself which order to put them in the paragraph. Write down your own note set that you can use to guide yourself as you write your paragraph or essay.
Writing Paragraphs
What is the writing stage?
The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences.
Five Writing Steps:
1. Open your notebook and word processor.
2. Write the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and closing sentence.
3. Write clear and simple sentences to express your meaning.
4. Focus on the main idea of your paragraph.
5. Use the dictionary to help you find additional words to express your ideas.
Editing Paragraphs
What is the editing stage?
The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for mistakes and correct them.
Grammar and Spelling
1. Check your spelling.
2. Check your grammar.
3. Read your essay again.
4. Make sure each sentence has a subject.
5. See if your subjects and verbs agree with each other.
6. Check the verb tenses of each sentence.
7. Make sure that each sentence makes sense.
Style and Organization
1. Make sure your paragraph has a topic sentence.
2. Make sure your supporting sentences focus on the main idea.
3. Make sure you have a closing sentence.
4. Check that all your sentences focus on the main idea.
5. See if your paragraph is interesting.
Types of Paragraphs
Definition Paragraph
When writing a definition paragraph, you take a thing or an idea and explain what it is.
| Example: | Write a paragraph giving the definition of a pest. |
The following words can help you to write a good definition paragraph:
1. "is defined as"
| Example: | A pest is defined as any animal or plant that damages crops, forests, or property. |
2. "is a kind of"
| Example: | A pest is a kind of animal or plant that damages crops, forests, or property. |
Classification Paragraph
When writing a classification paragraph, you group things or ideas into specific categories.
Example: Write a paragraph discussing two types of energy resources.
The following words can help you to write a good classification paragraph:
| Helper Words: |
Description Paragraph
In a description paragraph, you are writing about what a person, place, or thing is like. Sometimes, you may describe where a place is located.
| Examples: | Write a paragraph describing what a polar bear looks like. |
| Describe where |
The following words can help you to write a good description paragraph:
Helper Words:
| Properties | Measurement | Analogy | Location |
| | |||
| | |||
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| | | |
Compare and Contrast Paragraph
In a compare and contrast paragraph, you write about the similarities and differences between two or more people, places, things, or ideas.
Example: Write a paragraph comparing the weather in Vancouver and Halifax.
The following words can help you to write a good compare and contrast paragraph:
Helper Words:
| Similarities | Differences |
| | |
| |
Sequence Paragraph
In a sequencing paragraph, you are writing to describe a series of events or a process in some sort of order. Usually, this order is based on time.
Example: Write a paragraph outlining how a person becomes the prime minister.
The following words can help you to write a good sequence paragraph.
Helper Words:
| Order | Time |
| | |
| | |
| |
Choice Paragraph
In a paragraph where you have to make a choice, you need to choose which object, idea, or action that you prefer. Often, you will need to give your opinion on a choice of actions or events.
Example: Write a paragraph stating whether you would prefer to play hockey or lacrosse.
The following words can help you to write a good choice paragraph:
Helper Words:
| Point of View | Personal Opinion |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| |
Explanation Paragraph
In an explanation paragraph, you need to explain how or why something happens. Very often in social studies class, you will be asked to explore causes and effects of certain events.
Example: Write a paragraph explaining why so many Europeans moved to
The following words can help you to write a good explanation paragraph:
Helper Words:
| Cause | Effect |
| | |
| |
Evaluation Paragraph
In an evaluation paragraph, you make judgments about people, ideas, and possible actions. You need to make your evaluation based on certain criteria that you develop. In the paragraph, you will state your evaluation or recommendation and then support it by referring to your criteria.
Example: Write a paragraph evaluating whether pesticides should be used on farms.
The following words can help you to write a good evaluation paragraph:
Helper Words
| Criteria for Evaluation | Recommendation |
| |
PART OF SPEECH, AN OVERVIEW
English grammar uses words based on eight parts of speech: the verb, the noun, the
pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction,and the
interjection.
Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used.
The same word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next.
The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence. A verb or compound verb states
something about the subject of the sentence. The verb depicts actions, events, or states of
being.
NOUN
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, or abstract concepts.
A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject
complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.
Pronouns as a part of speech can replace a noun, another pronoun, noun phrases and
perform most of the functions of a noun.
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words.
Many consider articles: "the, a, an" to be adjectives.
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a complete clause
by indicating manner, time, place, cause, or degree.
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence.
Conjunctions link words, phrases, and clauses.
An interjection is a part of speech used to show or express emotion or illustrate an
exclamation.
Additional Parts of Speech Forms and Functions
VERBS
A transitive or sometimes called an action verb passes action on to a direct object.
An intransitive verb does not indicate a transfer of action.
A linking verb joins a subject with a word that describes it.
A main verb indicates the primary or principal activity.
An auxiliary verb helps the main verb describe an action or state of being.
A modal verb indicates ability, obligation, permission, or possibility. Modal examples: can,
may, must, should, could, might, ought, would.
A finite verb describes a definite and limited action or condition.
A non-finite verb shows an unfinished action or condition.
A ditransitive verb takes two complements, an indirect object and a direct object.
Mono transitive verbs take one complement, usually a direct object
An intransitive verb does not have any complements. Examples: Fred cried. Sally slept.
A prepositional verb is a mufti-word verb consisting of a verb and preposition.
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are multi-word verbs consisting of a verb, adverb and preposition.
Verb Forms called Verbals
Infinitives are the word " to + verb" and they act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
Participles in past or present tenses act as adjectives
Gerunds in the "present tense participle form" act as nouns.
NOUNS
Proper nouns are capitalized and include: name of a specific person, place, or thing, days of
the week, months of the year, historical documents, institutions, organizations, religions, holy
texts and religious followers.
A common noun is a noun referring in general to a person, place, or thing.
A concrete noun is a noun which names everything (or everyone) that you can perceive
through the physical senses of touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell.
An abstract noun is a noun that names anything that you can not perceive through your five
physical senses.
A countable noun (or count noun) names anything (or anyone) that you can count and is a
noun with both a singular and a plural form.
A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which
refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count.
A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals or persons.
A possessive noun indicates ownership or possession.
PRONOUNS
A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate
person, number, gender, and case.
A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the
sentence. The subjective personal pronouns: I, you, she, he, it, we, you, they".
An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb,
compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The objective personal pronouns: "me, you,
her, him, it, us, you, them".
A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an indication of possession and
defines who owns a particular object. The possessive personal pronouns: "mine, yours, hers,
his, its, ours, theirs".
A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. The demonstrative
pronouns: "this, that, these, and those''.
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns: "who, whom,
which what''
Relative pronouns link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The relative
pronouns: "who, whom, that, which.''
An indefinite pronoun refers to an unspecified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun depicts
the idea of all, any, none, or some. The most common indefinite pronouns: all, another, any,
anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, nobody,
none, one, several, some, somebody, and someone.
The reflexive pronouns identify the "self" such as: "myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself,
ourselves, yourselves, and themselves.''
An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasize or highlight an attribute.
ADJECTIVES
An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies. Gradable adjectives
have a base, comparative and superlative form. The adjective happy is intensified in the
following examples: "very happy, extremely happy, quite happy, happier, and happiest".
Adjectives can have stative or dynamic and inherent or non-inherent properties.
An adjective can be modified by an adverb or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb.
Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as adjectives.
A possessive adjective is similar to a possessive pronoun. The possessive adjective modifies a
noun or a noun phrase.
The demonstrative adjectives ``this, these, that, those, what'' are identical to the
demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases.
An interrogative adjective such as ``which or what'' is like an interrogative pronoun. The
interrogative adjective modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own.
An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun. The indefinite adjective modifies a
noun, pronoun, or noun phrase
ADVERBS
Adverbs have a complex grammatical relationship within the sentence or clause as a whole.
An adverb can be found in various places within the sentence. An adverb can modify a verb,
an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, a clause or entire sentence. Adverbs are gradable
with intensification and comparison.
A circumstantial adverb indicates manner, time or place.
A degree adverb specifies the degree or cause to which some property applies and answers
questions such as: how, when and where.
The conjunctive adverb can join two clauses together. The most common conjunctive adverbs:
"also, consequently, finally, furthermore, hence, however, incidentally, indeed, instead,
likewise, meanwhile, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, otherwise, still, then, therefore and
thus."
A disjunct adverb comments on the sentence as a whole. Example: Honestly, I couldn't
believe my eyes.
An interrogative adverb is used to construct interrogative sentences and "wh-questions"
example: Why did you do that?
PREPOSITIONS
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the
rest of the sentence.
The most common prepositions: "about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around,
at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but, by, despite, down, during,
except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over, past, since,
through, throughout, till, to, toward, under, underneath, until, up, upon, with, within and
without."
Complex prepositions consist of more than one word: along with, out of, up to.
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are a part of speech and are a closed word class which includes coordinating
words such as "and, but, and or", and subordinating words such as "because, if, and when".
Some conjunctions can also appear as prepositions or as adverbs.
Coordinating conjunctions ``and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet'' are used to join individual
words, phrases, and independent clauses. The conjunctions ``but'' and ``for'' can also
function as prepositions.
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the
relationship between the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s). The most
common subordinating conjunctions: "after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once,
since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether and while".
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence
elements. The most common correlative conjunctions: "both... and, either...or, neither...nor,
not only.., but also, so...as, and whether...or." Usually correlative conjunctions consist of a
coordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.
INTERJECTIONS
Interjections are used in speech to indicate emotion or transition. Interjections such as "yuk,
ouch, eh" are used as exclamations in conversation.
For Intermediate and Advanced Parts of Speech forms and functions please go to the ESL in
Canada Sentence Master Grammar Reference You can also order the complete Sentence
pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction,and the
interjection.
Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used.
The same word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next.
The verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence. A verb or compound verb states
something about the subject of the sentence. The verb depicts actions, events, or states of
being.
NOUN
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, or abstract concepts.
A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject
complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.
Pronouns as a part of speech can replace a noun, another pronoun, noun phrases and
perform most of the functions of a noun.
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words.
Many consider articles: "the, a, an" to be adjectives.
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a complete clause
by indicating manner, time, place, cause, or degree.
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence.
Conjunctions link words, phrases, and clauses.
An interjection is a part of speech used to show or express emotion or illustrate an
exclamation.
Additional Parts of Speech Forms and Functions
VERBS
A transitive or sometimes called an action verb passes action on to a direct object.
An intransitive verb does not indicate a transfer of action.
A linking verb joins a subject with a word that describes it.
A main verb indicates the primary or principal activity.
An auxiliary verb helps the main verb describe an action or state of being.
A modal verb indicates ability, obligation, permission, or possibility. Modal examples: can,
may, must, should, could, might, ought, would.
A finite verb describes a definite and limited action or condition.
A non-finite verb shows an unfinished action or condition.
A ditransitive verb takes two complements, an indirect object and a direct object.
Mono transitive verbs take one complement, usually a direct object
An intransitive verb does not have any complements. Examples: Fred cried. Sally slept.
A prepositional verb is a mufti-word verb consisting of a verb and preposition.
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are multi-word verbs consisting of a verb, adverb and preposition.
Verb Forms called Verbals
Infinitives are the word " to + verb" and they act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
Participles in past or present tenses act as adjectives
Gerunds in the "present tense participle form" act as nouns.
NOUNS
Proper nouns are capitalized and include: name of a specific person, place, or thing, days of
the week, months of the year, historical documents, institutions, organizations, religions, holy
texts and religious followers.
A common noun is a noun referring in general to a person, place, or thing.
A concrete noun is a noun which names everything (or everyone) that you can perceive
through the physical senses of touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell.
An abstract noun is a noun that names anything that you can not perceive through your five
physical senses.
A countable noun (or count noun) names anything (or anyone) that you can count and is a
noun with both a singular and a plural form.
A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which
refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count.
A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals or persons.
A possessive noun indicates ownership or possession.
PRONOUNS
A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate
person, number, gender, and case.
A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the
sentence. The subjective personal pronouns: I, you, she, he, it, we, you, they".
An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb,
compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The objective personal pronouns: "me, you,
her, him, it, us, you, them".
A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an indication of possession and
defines who owns a particular object. The possessive personal pronouns: "mine, yours, hers,
his, its, ours, theirs".
A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. The demonstrative
pronouns: "this, that, these, and those''.
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns: "who, whom,
which what''
Relative pronouns link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The relative
pronouns: "who, whom, that, which.''
An indefinite pronoun refers to an unspecified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun depicts
the idea of all, any, none, or some. The most common indefinite pronouns: all, another, any,
anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, nobody,
none, one, several, some, somebody, and someone.
The reflexive pronouns identify the "self" such as: "myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself,
ourselves, yourselves, and themselves.''
An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasize or highlight an attribute.
ADJECTIVES
An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies. Gradable adjectives
have a base, comparative and superlative form. The adjective happy is intensified in the
following examples: "very happy, extremely happy, quite happy, happier, and happiest".
Adjectives can have stative or dynamic and inherent or non-inherent properties.
An adjective can be modified by an adverb or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb.
Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as adjectives.
A possessive adjective is similar to a possessive pronoun. The possessive adjective modifies a
noun or a noun phrase.
The demonstrative adjectives ``this, these, that, those, what'' are identical to the
demonstrative pronouns, but are used as adjectives to modify nouns or noun phrases.
An interrogative adjective such as ``which or what'' is like an interrogative pronoun. The
interrogative adjective modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own.
An indefinite adjective is similar to an indefinite pronoun. The indefinite adjective modifies a
noun, pronoun, or noun phrase
ADVERBS
Adverbs have a complex grammatical relationship within the sentence or clause as a whole.
An adverb can be found in various places within the sentence. An adverb can modify a verb,
an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, a clause or entire sentence. Adverbs are gradable
with intensification and comparison.
A circumstantial adverb indicates manner, time or place.
A degree adverb specifies the degree or cause to which some property applies and answers
questions such as: how, when and where.
The conjunctive adverb can join two clauses together. The most common conjunctive adverbs:
"also, consequently, finally, furthermore, hence, however, incidentally, indeed, instead,
likewise, meanwhile, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, otherwise, still, then, therefore and
thus."
A disjunct adverb comments on the sentence as a whole. Example: Honestly, I couldn't
believe my eyes.
An interrogative adverb is used to construct interrogative sentences and "wh-questions"
example: Why did you do that?
PREPOSITIONS
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the
rest of the sentence.
The most common prepositions: "about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around,
at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, but, by, despite, down, during,
except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over, past, since,
through, throughout, till, to, toward, under, underneath, until, up, upon, with, within and
without."
Complex prepositions consist of more than one word: along with, out of, up to.
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions are a part of speech and are a closed word class which includes coordinating
words such as "and, but, and or", and subordinating words such as "because, if, and when".
Some conjunctions can also appear as prepositions or as adverbs.
Coordinating conjunctions ``and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet'' are used to join individual
words, phrases, and independent clauses. The conjunctions ``but'' and ``for'' can also
function as prepositions.
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the
relationship between the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s). The most
common subordinating conjunctions: "after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once,
since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether and while".
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence
elements. The most common correlative conjunctions: "both... and, either...or, neither...nor,
not only.., but also, so...as, and whether...or." Usually correlative conjunctions consist of a
coordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.
INTERJECTIONS
Interjections are used in speech to indicate emotion or transition. Interjections such as "yuk,
ouch, eh" are used as exclamations in conversation.
For Intermediate and Advanced Parts of Speech forms and functions please go to the ESL in
Canada Sentence Master Grammar Reference You can also order the complete Sentence
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